Gene expression and RNA splicing explain large proportions of the heritability for complex traits in cattle.

Many quantitative trait loci (QTLs) are in non-coding regions. Therefore, QTLs are assumed to affect gene regulation. Gene expression and RNA splicing are primary steps of transcription, so DNA variants changing gene expression (eVariants) or RNA splicing (sVariants) are expected to significantly affect phenotypes. We quantify the contribution of eVariants and sVariants detected from 16 tissues (n = 4,725) to 37 traits of ∼120,000 cattle (average magnitude of genetic correlation between traits = 0.13). Analyzed in Bayesian mixture models, averaged across 37 traits, cis and trans eVariants and sVariants detected from 16 tissues jointly explain 69.2% (SE = 0.5%) of heritability, 44% more than expected from the same number of random variants. This 69.2% includes an average of 24% from trans e-/sVariants (14% more than expected). Averaged across 56 lipidomic traits, multi-tissue cis and trans e-/sVariants also explain 71.5% (SE = 0.3%) of heritability, demonstrating the essential role of proximal and distal regulatory variants in shaping mammalian phenotypes.

A casework study: The effect of the porcine digestive process on animal carcasses and human teeth.

What happens if a human body is fed to pigs? Although a popular notion in the entertainment industry, no scientific published literature exists that documents this porcine feeding behaviour, nor, more importantly, what elements of the cadaver may survive such a process. A study conducted in 2020, born out of a casework enquiry, aimed to investigate the following two questions; Would pigs feed on a human body? And, if so, what could be recovered post feeding event? Kangaroo carcasses, porcine carcasses (as human analogues) and 90 human teeth were prepared, and fed, to two domestic pigs, in a variety of feed scenarios. Biological traces including bones, bone fragments, teeth and tooth fragments were recovered both post-digestion from the faeces of the pigs, as well as uneaten from the porcine enclosure. 29% of all human teeth were recovered from the study; 35% of which were recovered post-digestion from the faeces and 65% were recovered uneaten from the porcine enclosure, Of the recovered human teeth, 81% were deemed suitable for identification by a forensic odontologist. From the 447 bones recovered from the enclosure, 94% could be identified to a bone type and species. From all 3338 bone fragments recovered from the faeces of the pigs, none retained any morphological traits that would allow further intelligence to be generated. Overall, it was found that pigs will feed on human analogues and will consume soft tissue, bones, and human teeth. Biological traces in the form of bones, bone fragments, teeth and tooth fragments may be recovered both post-digestion from the faeces, or from the porcine enclosure. The biological traces can be used for identification of an individual via forensic odontology, identification of a species via forensic anthropology and may be suitable for DNA analysis. The outcomes of this study generated new avenues for investigation in the case and may be used to inform future operational resources.

Evolution of tissue and developmental specificity of transcription start sites in Bos taurus indicus.

To further the understanding of the evolution of transcriptional regulation, we profiled genome-wide transcriptional start sites (TSSs) in two sub-species, Bos taurus taurus and Bos taurus indicus, that diverged approximately 500,000 years ago. Evolutionary and developmental-stage differences in TSSs were detected across the sub-species, including translocation of dominant TSS and changes in TSS distribution. The 16% of all SNPs located in significant differentially used TSS clusters across sub-species had significant shifts in allele frequency (472 SNPs), indicating they may have been subject to selection. In spleen and muscle, a higher relative TSS expression was observed in Bos indicus than Bos taurus for all heat shock protein genes, which may be responsible for the tropical adaptation of Bos indicus.

Expression quantitative trait loci in sheep liver and muscle contribute to variations in meat traits.

BACKGROUND: Variants that regulate transcription, such as expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL), have shown enrichment in genome-wide association studies (GWAS) for mammalian complex traits. However, no study has reported eQTL in sheep, although it is an important agricultural species for which many GWAS of complex meat traits have been conducted. Using RNA sequence data produced from liver and muscle from 149 sheep and imputed whole-genome single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), our aim was to dissect the genetic architecture of the transcriptome by associating sheep genotypes with three major molecular phenotypes including gene expression (geQTL), exon expression (eeQTL) and RNA splicing (sQTL). We also examined these three types of eQTL for their enrichment in GWAS of multi-meat traits and fatty acid profiles. RESULTS: Whereas a relatively small number of molecular phenotypes were significantly heritable (h2 > 0, P < 0.05), their mean heritability ranged from 0.67 to 0.73 for liver and from 0.71 to 0.77 for muscle. Association analysis between molecular phenotypes and SNPs within ± 1 Mb identified many significant cis-eQTL (false discovery rate, FDR < 0.01). The median distance between the eQTL and transcription start sites (TSS) ranged from 68 to 153 kb across the three eQTL types. The number of common variants between geQTL, eeQTL and sQTL within each tissue, and the number of common variants between liver and muscle within each eQTL type were all significantly (P < 0.05) larger than expected by chance. The identified eQTL were significantly (P < 0.05) enriched in GWAS hits associated with 56 carcass traits and fatty acid profiles. For example, several geQTL in muscle mapped to the FAM184B gene, hundreds of sQTL in liver and muscle mapped to the CAST gene, and hundreds of sQTL in liver mapped to the C6 gene. These three genes are associated with body composition or fatty acid profiles. CONCLUSIONS: We detected a large number of significant eQTL and found that the overlap of variants between eQTL types and tissues was prevalent. Many eQTL were also QTL for meat traits. Our study fills a gap in the knowledge on the regulatory variants and their role in complex traits for the sheep model.

Mitochondrial protein gene expression and the oxidative phosphorylation pathway associated with feed efficiency and energy balance in dairy cattle.

Feed efficiency and energy balance are important traits underpinning profitability and environmental sustainability in animal production. They are complex traits, and our understanding of their underlying biology is currently limited. One measure of feed efficiency is residual feed intake (RFI), which is the difference between actual and predicted intake. Variation in RFI among individuals is attributable to the metabolic efficiency of energy utilization. High RFI (H_RFI) animals require more energy per unit of weight gain or milk produced compared with low RFI (L_RFI) animals. Energy balance (EB) is a closely related trait calculated very similarly to RFI. Cellular energy metabolism in mitochondria involves mitochondrial protein (MiP) encoded by both nuclear (NuMiP) and mitochondrial (MtMiP) genomes. We hypothesized that MiP genes are differentially expressed (DE) between H_RFI and L_RFI animal groups and similarly between negative and positive EB groups. Our study aimed to characterize MiP gene expression in white blood cells of H_RFI and L_RFI cows using RNA sequencing to identify genes and biological pathways associated with feed efficiency in dairy cattle. We used the top and bottom 14 cows ranked for RFI and EB out of 109 animals as H_RFI and L_RFI, and positive and negative EB groups, respectively. The gene expression counts across all nuclear and mitochondrial genes for animals in each group were used for differential gene expression analyses, weighted gene correlation network analysis, functional enrichment, and identification of hub genes. Out of 244 DE genes between RFI groups, 38 were MiP genes. The DE genes were enriched for the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and ribosome pathways. The DE MiP genes were underexpressed in L_RFI (and negative EB) compared with the H_RFI (and positive EB) groups, suggestive of reduced mitochondrial activity in the L_RFI group. None of the MtMiP genes were among the DE MiP genes between the groups, which suggests a non-rate limiting role of MtMiP genes in feed efficiency and warrants further investigation. The role of MiP, particularly the NuMiP and OXPHOS pathways in RFI, was also supported by our gene correlation network analysis and the hub gene identification. We validated the findings in an independent data set. Overall, our study suggested that differences in feed efficiency in dairy cows may be linked to differences in cellular energy demand. This study broadens our knowledge of the biology of feed efficiency in dairy cattle.

Expression of mitochondrial protein genes encoded by nuclear and mitochondrial genomes correlate with energy metabolism in dairy cattle.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in the mitochondrial genome have been implicated in mitochondrial disease, often characterized by impaired cellular energy metabolism. Cellular energy metabolism in mitochondria involves mitochondrial proteins (MP) from both the nuclear (NuMP) and mitochondrial (MtMP) genomes. The expression of MP genes in tissues may be tissue specific to meet varying specific energy demands across the tissues. Currently, the characteristics of MP gene expression in tissues of dairy cattle are not well understood. In this study, we profile the expression of MP genes in 29 adult and six foetal tissues in dairy cattle using RNA sequencing and gene expression analyses: particularly differential gene expression and co-expression network analyses. RESULTS: MP genes were differentially expressed (DE; over-expressed or under-expressed) across tissues in cattle. All 29 tissues showed DE NuMP genes in varying proportions of over-expression and under-expression. On the other hand, DE of MtMP genes was observed in < 50% of tissues and notably MtMP genes within a tissue was either all over-expressed or all under-expressed. A high proportion of NuMP (up to 60%) and MtMP (up to 100%) genes were over-expressed in tissues with expected high metabolic demand; heart, skeletal muscles and tongue, and under-expressed (up to 45% of NuMP, 77% of MtMP genes) in tissues with expected low metabolic rates; leukocytes, thymus, and lymph nodes. These tissues also invariably had the expression of all MtMP genes in the direction of dominant NuMP genes expression. The NuMP and MtMP genes were highly co-expressed across tissues and co-expression of genes in a cluster were non-random and functionally enriched for energy generation pathway. The differential gene expression and co-expression patterns were validated in independent cow and sheep datasets. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study support the concept that there are biological interaction of MP genes from the mitochondrial and nuclear genomes given their over-expression in tissues with high energy demand and co-expression in tissues. This highlights the importance of considering MP genes from both genomes in future studies related to mitochondrial functions and traits related to energy metabolism.

Quantifying the contribution of sequence variants with regulatory and evolutionary significance to 34 bovine complex traits.

Many genome variants shaping mammalian phenotype are hypothesized to regulate gene transcription and/or to be under selection. However, most of the evidence to support this hypothesis comes from human studies. Systematic evidence for regulatory and evolutionary signals contributing to complex traits in a different mammalian model is needed. Sequence variants associated with gene expression (expression quantitative trait loci [eQTLs]) and concentration of metabolites (metabolic quantitative trait loci [mQTLs]) and under histone-modification marks in several tissues were discovered from multiomics data of over 400 cattle. Variants under selection and evolutionary constraint were identified using genome databases of multiple species. These analyses defined 30 sets of variants, and for each set, we estimated the genetic variance the set explained across 34 complex traits in 11,923 bulls and 32,347 cows with 17,669,372 imputed variants. The per-variant trait heritability of these sets across traits was highly consistent (r > 0.94) between bulls and cows. Based on the per-variant heritability, conserved sites across 100 vertebrate species and mQTLs ranked the highest, followed by eQTLs, young variants, those under histone-modification marks, and selection signatures. From these results, we defined a Functional-And-Evolutionary Trait Heritability (FAETH) score indicating the functionality and predicted heritability of each variant. In additional 7,551 cattle, the high FAETH-ranking variants had significantly increased genetic variances and genomic prediction accuracies in 3 production traits compared to the low FAETH-ranking variants. The FAETH framework combines the information of gene regulation, evolution, and trait heritability to rank variants, and the publicly available FAETH data provide a set of biological priors for cattle genomic selection worldwide.

Fine-mapping sequence mutations with a major effect on oligosaccharide content in bovine milk.

Human milk contains abundant oligosaccharides (OS) which are believed to have strong health benefits for neonates. OS are a minor component of bovine milk and little is known about how the production of OS is regulated in the bovine mammary gland. We have measured the abundance of 12 major OS in milk of 360 cows, which had high density SNP marker genotypes. Most of the OS were found to be highly heritable (h2 between 50 and 84%). A genome-wide association study allowed us to fine-map several QTL and identify candidate genes with major effects on five OS. Among them, a putative causal mutation close to the ABO gene on Chromosome 11 accounted for approximately 80% of genetic variance for two OS, N-acetylgalactosaminyllactose and lacto-N-neotetraose. This mutation lies very close to a variant associated with the expression levels of ABO. A third QTL mapped close to ST3GAL6 on Chromosome 1 explaining 33% of genetic variation of an abundant OS, 3'-sialyllactose. The presence of major gene effects suggests that targeted marker-assisted selection would lead to a significant increase in the level of these OS in milk. This is the first attempt to map candidate genes and causal mutations for bovine milk OS.

Accuracy of imputation to whole-genome sequence in sheep.

BACKGROUND: The use of whole-genome sequence (WGS) data for genomic prediction and association studies is highly desirable because the causal mutations should be present in the data. The sequencing of 935 sheep from a range of breeds provides the opportunity to impute sheep genotyped with single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays to WGS. This study evaluated the accuracy of imputation from SNP genotypes to WGS using this reference population of 935 sequenced sheep. RESULTS: The accuracy of imputation from the Ovine Infinium® HD BeadChip SNP (~ 500 k) to WGS was assessed for three target breeds: Merino, Poll Dorset and F1 Border Leicester × Merino. Imputation accuracy was highest for the Poll Dorset breed, although there were more Merino individuals in the sequenced reference population than Poll Dorset individuals. In addition, empirical imputation accuracies were higher (by up to 1.7%) when using larger multi-breed reference populations compared to using a smaller single-breed reference population. The mean accuracy of imputation across target breeds using the Minimac3 or the FImpute software was 0.94. The empirical imputation accuracy varied considerably across the genome; six chromosomes carried regions of one or more Mb with a mean imputation accuracy of < 0.7. Imputation accuracy in five variant annotation classes ranged from 0.87 (missense) up to 0.94 (intronic variants), where lower accuracy corresponded to higher proportions of rare alleles. The imputation quality statistic reported from Minimac3 (R2) had a clear positive relationship with the empirical imputation accuracy. Therefore, by first discarding imputed variants with an R2 below 0.4, the mean empirical accuracy across target breeds increased to 0.97. Although accuracy of genomic prediction was less affected by filtering on R2 in a multi-breed population of sheep with imputed WGS, the genomic heritability clearly tended to be lower when using variants with an R2 ≤ 0.4. CONCLUSIONS: The mean imputation accuracy was high for all target breeds and was increased by combining smaller breed sets into a multi-breed reference. We found that the Minimac3 software imputation quality statistic (R2) was a useful indicator of empirical imputation accuracy, enabling removal of very poorly imputed variants before downstream analyses.

Genome variants associated with RNA splicing variations in bovine are extensively shared between tissues.

BACKGROUND: Mammalian phenotypes are shaped by numerous genome variants, many of which may regulate gene transcription or RNA splicing. To identify variants with regulatory functions in cattle, an important economic and model species, we used sequence variants to map a type of expression quantitative trait loci (expression QTLs) that are associated with variations in the RNA splicing, i.e., sQTLs. To further the understanding of regulatory variants, sQTLs were compare with other two types of expression QTLs, 1) variants associated with variations in gene expression, i.e., geQTLs and 2) variants associated with variations in exon expression, i.e., eeQTLs, in different tissues. RESULTS: Using whole genome and RNA sequence data from four tissues of over 200 cattle, sQTLs identified using exon inclusion ratios were verified by matching their effects on adjacent intron excision ratios. sQTLs contained the highest percentage of variants that are within the intronic region of genes and contained the lowest percentage of variants that are within intergenic regions, compared to eeQTLs and geQTLs. Many geQTLs and sQTLs are also detected as eeQTLs. Many expression QTLs, including sQTLs, were significant in all four tissues and had a similar effect in each tissue. To verify such expression QTL sharing between tissues, variants surrounding (±1 Mb) the exon or gene were used to build local genomic relationship matrices (LGRM) and estimated genetic correlations between tissues. For many exons, the splicing and expression level was determined by the same cis additive genetic variance in different tissues. Thus, an effective but simple-to-implement meta-analysis combining information from three tissues is introduced to increase power to detect and validate sQTLs. sQTLs and eeQTLs together were more enriched for variants associated with cattle complex traits, compared to geQTLs. Several putative causal mutations were identified, including an sQTL at Chr6:87392580 within the 5th exon of kappa casein (CSN3) associated with milk production traits. CONCLUSIONS: Using novel analytical approaches, we report the first identification of numerous bovine sQTLs which are extensively shared between multiple tissue types. The significant overlaps between bovine sQTLs and complex traits QTL highlight the contribution of regulatory mutations to phenotypic variations.

Improved precision of QTL mapping using a nonlinear Bayesian method in a multi-breed population leads to greater accuracy of across-breed genomic predictions.

BACKGROUND: Genomic selection is increasingly widely practised, particularly in dairy cattle. However, the accuracy of current predictions using GBLUP (genomic best linear unbiased prediction) decays rapidly across generations, and also as selection candidates become less related to the reference population. This is likely caused by the effects of causative mutations being dispersed across many SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) that span large genomic intervals. In this paper, we hypothesise that the use of a nonlinear method (BayesR), combined with a multi-breed (Holstein/Jersey) reference population will map causative mutations with more precision than GBLUP and this, in turn, will increase the accuracy of genomic predictions for selection candidates that are less related to the reference animals. RESULTS: BayesR improved the across-breed prediction accuracy for Australian Red dairy cattle for five milk yield and composition traits by an average of 7% over the GBLUP approach (Australian Red animals were not included in the reference population). Using the multi-breed reference population with BayesR improved accuracy of prediction in Australian Red cattle by 2 - 5% compared to using BayesR with a single breed reference population. Inclusion of 8478 Holstein and 3917 Jersey cows in the reference population improved accuracy of predictions for these breeds by 4 and 5%. However, predictions for Holstein and Jersey cattle were similar using within-breed and multi-breed reference populations. We propose that the improvement in across-breed prediction achieved by BayesR with the multi-breed reference population is due to more precise mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTL), which was demonstrated for several regions. New candidate genes with functional links to milk synthesis were identified using differential gene expression in the mammary gland. CONCLUSIONS: QTL detection and genomic prediction are usually considered independently but persistence of genomic prediction accuracies across breeds requires accurate estimation of QTL effects. We show that accuracy of across-breed genomic predictions was higher with BayesR than with GBLUP and that BayesR mapped QTL more precisely. Further improvements of across-breed accuracy of genomic predictions and QTL mapping could be achieved by increasing the size of the reference population, including more breeds, and possibly by exploiting pleiotropic effects to improve mapping efficiency for QTL with small effects.